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Sources of ancient Tamil history
There are literary, archaeological, epigraphic and numismatic sources of ancient Tamil history. Archaeological excavations of several sites in Tamil Nadu have yielded remnants from the Sangam era, such as different kinds of pottery, pottery with inscriptions, imported ceramic ware, industrial objects, brick structures and spinning whorls. Techniques such as stratigraphy and paleography have helped establish the date of these items to the Sangam era. The excavated artifacts have provided evidence for existence of different economic activities mentioned in Sangam literature such as agriculture, weaving, smithy, gem cutting, building construction, pearl fishing and painting. Las excavaciones arqueológicas de varios yacimientos en Tamil Nadu han arrojado los restos de la era Sangam, como diferentes tipos de cerámica, piezas de cerámica con inscripciones, cerámica importados, objetos industriales, estructuras de ladrillo y malacates. Técnicas tales como la estratigrafía y paleografía han ayudado a establecer la fecha de estos elementos a la era Sangam. Los artefactos excavados han proporcionado evidencias de la existencia de diferentes actividades económicas mencionadas en la literatura Sangam, como la agricultura, el tejido, herrería, corte de gemas, la construcción, perlas elaboradas y la pintura. Inscriptions found on caves and pottery are another source for studying the history of Tamilakam. Writings in Tamil-Brahmi script have been found in many locations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, mostly recording grants made by the kings and chieftains. References are also made to other aspects of the Sangam society. Coins issued by the Tamil kings of this age have been recovered from river beds and urban centers of their kingdoms. Most of the coins carry the emblem of the corresponding dynasty on their reverse, such as the bow and arrow of the Cheras; some of them contain portraits and written legends helping numismatists assign them to a certain period. thumb|Grey Pottery With Engravings, Virampatnam, Arikamedu, 1st Century CE. Las inscripciones encontradas en cuevas y cerámicas son otra fuente para el estudio de la historia de la Tamilakam. Escritos en Tamil-Brahmi se han encontrado en muchos lugares de Kerala y Tamil Nadu, en su mayoría grabación de las subvenciones concedidas por los reyes y jefes. También se hace referencia a otros aspectos de la sociedad de Sangam. Las monedas emitidas por los reyes tamiles de esta edad se han recuperado de lechos de los ríos y de los centros urbanos de sus reinos. La mayoría de las monedas que llevan el emblema de la dinastía correspondiente en su reverso, como el arco y la flecha de la Cheras, algunos de ellos contienen los retratos y leyendas escritas ayudar numismatists asignarlos a un período determinado. Archeological sources Many of the pottery sherds contain Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions on them, which have provided additional evidence for the archaeologist to date them. Other artifacts such as brick walls, ring wells, pits, industrial items, remains of seeds and shells provide clues about the nature of the settlements and the other aspects of life during the Sangam age. Archaeologists agree that activities best illustrated in the material records of Tamilakam are trade, hunting, agriculture and crafts.Abraham, p. 219 Evidence for economic activities A research survey at Kodumanal has unearthed the remains of an ancient blast furnace, its circular base distinguishable by its white colour, probably the result of high temperature. Around the base, many iron slags, some with embedded burnt clay, vitrified brick-bats, many terracotta pipes with vitrified mouths and a granite slab, which may have been the anvil, have been recovered. Absence of potsherds and other antiquities has suggested that the smelting place was located outside the boundary of habitation. More furnaces were discovered at the same site with burnt clay pieces with rectangular holes. The pieces were part of the furnace wall, the holes designed to allow a natural draught of air to pass through evenly into the furnace. Many vitrified crucibles were also recovered from this site; one of them notable because it was found in an in situ position.Rajan, pp. 65–66 Evidence of steel making is also found in the crucibles excavated at this site.Rajan, p. 95 In addition to iron and steel, the metallurgy seems to have possibly extended to copper, bronze, lead, silver and gold objects.Rajan, pp. 98–102 At Arikamedu, there were indications of small-scale workshops containing the remains of working in metal, glass, semiprecious stones, ivory and shell.Begley, Kodumanal has yielded evidence for the practice of weaving, in the form of a number of intact terracotta spindle whorls pierced at the centre by means of an iron rod, indicating the knowledge of cotton spinning and weaving. To further strengthen this theory, a well preserved piece of woven cotton cloth was also recovered from this site.Rajan, p. 67 Dyeing vats were spotted at Arikamedu.Begley, p. 475 Many brick structures have been located at Kaveripumpattinam during on-shore, near shore and off-shore explorations; these provide proof for building construction during Sangam age. The on-shore structure include an I-shaped wharf and a structure that looks like a reservoir. The wharf has a number of wooden poles planted in its structure to enable anchorage of boats and to facilitate the handling of cargo. Among other structures, there is a Buddhist vihara with parts of it decorated using moulded bricks and stucco. Near shore excavations yielded a brick structure and a few terracotta ring wells. Off-shore explorations located a fifteen course brick structure, three courses of dressed stone blocks, brick bats and pottery.Tripati et al., pp. 86, 88–89 At Arikamedu, there were indications of a structure built substantially of timber, possibly a wharf. Conical jars that could have been used for storing wine and oil have been found near structures that could have been shops or storage areas. Evidence of continued building activity are present at this site, with the most distinctive structures being those of a possible warehouse, dyeing tanks and lined pits. Kodumanal was popular for the gem-cutting industry and manufacture of jewels. Sites bearing natural reserves of semi-precious stones such as beryls, sapphire and quartz are located in the vicinity of Kodumanal. Beads of sapphire, beryl, agate, carnelian, amethyst, lapis lazulli, jasper, garnet, soapstone and quartz were unearthed from here. The samples were in different manufacturing stages – finished, semi-finished, drilled and undrilled, polished and unpolished and in the form of raw material. Chips and stone slabs, one with a few grooved beads, clearly demonstrate that these were manufactured locally at Kodumanal.Rajan, pp. 66–67 Excavations at Korkai have yielded a large number of pearl oyesters at different levels, indicating the practice of the trade in this region.Gaur and Sundaresh, p. 127 Some of the objects excavated from Kodumanal show a lot of artistic features such as paintings on the pottery, engravings on the beads, hexagonal designs on beads, inlay work in a tiger figurine and engraved shell bangles. More than ten designs are noticed in the paintings and bead etchings.Rajan, p. 141 There are remnants of many of the items imported from and exported to the Roman empire, at Arikamedu. Imported items recovered from here include ceramics such as amphorae and sherds of Arretine ware, glass bowls, Roman lamps, a crystal gem and an object resembling a stylus. Artifacts that may have been meant for export include jewellery, worked ivory, textiles and perhaps leather or leather-related products.Begley, p. 480 Similar looking ornaments have been recovered from Arikamedu and Palatine Hill in Rome, further confirming that this site was a leading trade center. The Pandyan port city Alagankulam has yielded a rouletted pottery ware that bears the figure of a ship on the shoulder portion. This figure is very similar to a finding reported from Ostia, an ancient port of the Romans.Gaur and Sundaresh, p. 126 Wharf-like structures found at many port cities indicate that they might have been used as docks. Based on marine explorations of various port-sites, it has been suggested that stone anchors may have been used since as early as 3rd century BCE.Athiyaman and Jayakumar, p. 1266 Pottery inscriptions Inscriptions on pottery, written in Tamil-Brahmi, have been found from about 20 archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu. Using methods such as stratigraphy and palaeography, these have been dated between 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE. Also found in present day Andhra Pradesh and Sri Lanka, similar inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi have been found outside the ancient Tamil country in Thailand and the Red Sea coast in Egypt. Arikamedu, the ancient port city of the Cholas, and Urayur and Puhar, their early capitals, have yielded several fragmentary pottery inscriptions, all dated to the Sangam age. Kodumanal, a major industrial center known for the manufacture of gems during this period, had remains of pottery with insciptions in Tamil, Prakrit and Sinhala-Prakrit. Alagankulam, a thriving sea port of the early Pandyas, has yielded pottery inscriptions that mention several personal names including the name of a Chera prince. One of the pottery sherds contained the depiction of a large Roman ship. Many other ancient sites such as Kanchipuram, Karur, Korkai and Puhar have all yielded pottery with inscriptions on them. Outside of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi have been found in Srikakulam district in Andhra Pradesh, Jaffna in modern Sri Lanka, ancient Roman ports of Qusier al-Qadim and Berenike in Egypt. The second century BCE potsherds found in excavations in Poonagari, Jaffna, bear Tamil inscriptions of a clan name - vēḷāṉ, related to velirs of the ancient Tamil country. p. 48. The inscriptions at Berenike refer to a Tamil chieftain Korran.Mahadevan, pp. 43-49 These excavations have yielded different varieties of ceramics such as black and red ware, rouletted ware and Russet coated ware, both locally made and imported kinds. Many of the pottery sherds contain Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions on them, which have provided additional evidence for the archaeologist to date them. Other artifacts such as brick walls, ring wells, pits, industrial items, remains of seeds and shells provide clues about the nature of the settlements and the other aspects of life during the Sangam age. Archaeologists agree that activities best illustrated in the material records of Tamilakam are trade, hunting, agriculture and crafts.Abraham, p. 219 References * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * * Category:Tamil history Category:Tamil Nadu Category:Ancient India Category:Tamil literature